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Reliable high-speed broadband is a necessity in the United States, and states are making efforts to expand access through federal investments. This article provides an overview of broadband networks, infrastructure, and technologies.

The internet is not simply a series of tubes but a complex collection of interconnected networks. These networks are owned and operated by different internet service providers (ISPs) through which data travels. Broadband networks enable high-speed internet and consist of three main components.

The backbone is a network of large fiber optic pipes that serve as the main data routes on the internet. These backbone networks are buried underground and cross state and national boundaries.

The middle mile, also known as “backhaul,” connects the backbone to the last mile.

The last mile is the segment that connects a local ISP to the customer, typically through a cable line to the home.

ISPs can be municipal utilities, cooperatives, or private businesses such as cable or telephone companies. They are categorized into three tiers based on their size, geographic reach, and how they exchange data among networks.

Tier 1 ISPs own and operate the infrastructure, including the internet backbone. These ISPs have a global reach and coordinate with each other to exchange traffic at no cost.

Tier 2 ISPs, such as large cable providers and telecommunications companies, exchange data over their networks but rely on Tier 1 ISPs to access other parts of the internet. They have a regional reach.

Tier 3 ISPs are usually last-mile service providers that offer direct connections to customers within a local area. They must purchase access to the broader internet through contracts with Tier 1 providers or by buying services from Tier 2 providers.

Data exchanges between networks occur at internet exchange points (IXPs) where carriers house equipment to link their networks. Network switches are used to transfer data efficiently from one network to another.

The speed of content loading on users’ screens depends on the slowest link in the network, often the last mile. Bandwidth and throughput are two factors that determine the speed. Bandwidth refers to the capacity of the network to transmit data, while throughput is the amount of data that can pass through the system. The wider the road (bandwidth), the more traffic (throughput) it can handle without congestion.

Accessing the internet involves the use of edge providers, such as large retail, social media, or streaming companies, or individuals who offer content. Content is delivered to users through content delivery networks (CDNs), which are systems of servers owned by technology firms. CDNs store copies of web content in various locations to reduce the distance between users and the content they want.

ISPs use various technologies to connect users to the internet, including wireline connections, fixed wireless connections, and satellite connections. Wireline connections, which are the most common type of home broadband connection in the U.S., use cable internet service provided by cable television companies. These connections involve fiber lines that go to neighborhood nodes and coaxial cables to transmit data.

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